Ch.9 Patterns of Inheritance

WHAT WERE EXPERIMENTS MENDEL CONDUCT AND WHAT WERE HIS RESULTS?
Mendel conducted pea plant experiment. He crossed different plants and came out mostly with the same result, but some had different phenotypes. Je experimented with thousands of pea plants and recorded the phenotypic and genotypic traits of both using Punnet Squares. Mendel's finding showed that phenotypic traits in pea plants were inherited in discrete packages and at predictable frequencies. Mendel stated two laws, law of independent segregation, which states that a parent plant passed only one copy of a trait to the offspring. His second law was the Law of independent assortment that states that these traits met randomly in the offspring. 

WHY DO MORE MEN THAN WOMEN HAVE COLOR BLINDNESS?

Women have the sex chromosomes XX, while men have the chromosomes XY. The gene for normal color vision is found on the X-chromosome. If a woman has one X-chromosome with the gene and one without it, she will not be color blind. On the other hand, a man with an X-chromosome that is missing the gene has no backup. He will be color blind. Color blind women have both X-chromosomes missing the color vision gene. This has less probability than having just one X-chromosome missing the gene.

WHAT ARE THE MENDELIAN LAWS?
1) Law of segregation: pair of characteristics only one can be represented in a gamete. In another words,  for any pair of characteristics there is only one gene in a gamete even though there are two genes in ordinary cells.
2) Law of independent assortment: two characteristics the genes are inherited independently.
 If you had the genotype AaBb, you would make four kinds of gametes: they would contain the combinations of either AB, Ab, aB, or ab.

SUMMARY:
Genetic materials are only transported to offsprings. In another words, no matter how hard you work out to build your arm muscles, the offsprings will not get the muscle unless you have muscle cells that build muscles faster and easier than normally. In 1859, Mendel published a paper that says that the heritable factors retain their individuality generation after generation. He choose garden pea flower to study, using method that prevented fertilization, to cross fertilize the stamenless flower the carpel developed into a pod, and he planted. The seeds grew into offspring plants. Through these methods, Mendel was always sure of the parentage of new plants. He worked until he was sure he had true-breeding varieties. Mendel's law of segregation describes the inheritance of a single character. This starts with a cross between two parents and cross them to expect how offsprings are going to look like, using punnett square. We are able to describe phenotype and genotype of offsprings. Mendel's law of segregation states that pairs of alleles segregate during gamete formation. Homologous chromosomes state that alleles of a gene reside at the same locus on homologous chromosomes. Mendel's law of independent assortment states that each pair of alleles segregates independently of other pairs of alleles during gamete formation. From crossing P generations using punnett square, we are able to distinguish the percentage of phenotype and genotype of offsprings that will be born.
Genetic traits in humans can be tracked through family pedigrees. To analyze the pedigree, the geneticist applies logic and the Mendelian laws. Dominant traits are usually easier to occur, such as having freckles, widow's peak, and free earlobe. However people do have recessive traits, opposite of dominant traits, such as no freckles, straight hairline, and attached earlobe. Many inherited disorders in humans are controlled by a single gene. For example of recessive disorders, if both parents have gene of deaf, 25% of offsprings have possibilities to be deaf. The most common fatal genetic disease in the United states is cystic fibrosis. The CF allele is carried by about one in 25 people of European ancestry. The probability increases greatly if close relatives marry and have children. People with recent common ancestors are more likely to carry the same recessive relatives, called inbreeding, which is more like to produce offspring many types of inbred animals.
New technologies are able to provide insight into someone's genetic legacy. Genetic testing, fetal testing, fetal imaging, and ethical considerations are used. There is an incomplete phenotype. For example, if you cross red flower and white flower, there are probabilities of pink flower to be born between them.
Many genes have more than two alleles in the population. Most genes can be found in populations in more than two versions, known as multiple alleles. Although any particular individual carries, at most, two different alleles for a particular gene, in cases of multiple alleles, more than two possible alleles exist in the wider population. For example, blood group phenotype. There are four blood types, A, B, O, and AB. These letters refer to two carbohydrates, designated A and B, that may be found on the surface of red blood cells. Genotypes will be ii for O, IAIA or IAiA for A, IBIB or IBiB for B, and IAIB for AB. If I is a capital, it is a codominant; both alleles are expressed in heterozygous individuals.
Chromosome behavior accounts for Mendel's laws. The chromosome theory of inheritance was emerging. It states that genes occupy specific loci on chromosomes and it is the chromosomes that undergo segregation and independent assortment during meiosis. Thus, it is the behavior of chromosomes during meiosis and fertilization that accounts for inheritance patterns. Genes located close together on the same chromosome tend to be inherited together and they are called linked genes. They do not generally follow Mendel's law of independent assortment. Crossing over is very useful. They are used to produce new combinations of alleles, see the percentage of it, and also its data can be used to map genes.
Many animals have a pair of sex chromosomes, designated X and Y that determine and individual's sex. A gene located on either sex chromosome is called a sex-linked gene. By using punnett square, whether an individual is a male or a female is also able to be determined. Disorders can affect mostly males. For example, hemophilia, red-green color blindness, and duchenne muscular dystrophy.


KEY TERMS:
-self-fertilize: sperm-carrying pollen grains released from the stamens land on the egg containing carpel of the same flower.
-cross-fertilization: fertilization of one plant by pollen from a different plant.
-hybrids: the offspring of two different varieties
-P generation: the true-breeding parental plants
-F1 generation: true-breeding parental plants' hybrid offsprings
-F2 generation: offsprings of when F1 plants self-fertilizeor fertilize each other
-testcross: a mating between an individual of unknown genotype and a homozygous recessive individual
-phenotype: offsprings' composition, geneticists distinguish between an organism's expressed, or physical, traits
-genotype: genetic makeup such as PP, Pp, pp
-rule of addition: the probability that an event can occur in two or more alternative ways is the sum of the separate probabilities of the different ways.

This punnett square shows that both parents have gametes that can be showed as  RrYy cross over. And it shows the probabilities of offspring whether if it is going to have round yellow, round green, wrinkled yellow, or wrinkled green. In this punnett square, 1/16 have RRYY, RRyy, rrYY, or rryy, 2/16 have RRYy, rrYy, Rryy, or RrYY, and 4/16 have RrYy. This is genotype of offsprings. And 9/16 have round yellow, 3/16 have round green, or wrinkled yellow, and 1/16 have wrinkled green. It is phenotype of offsprings. 
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-2YPAt8hOmE

5FACTS:

1) Phenotype shows the physical looking of organism, and genotype shows the alleles.

2) Mendel's laws are valid for all sexually reproducing species, but genotype often does not dictate phenotype in the simple way his laws describe.

3) Sex chromosomes determine sex in many species. If a specie has Y, it is a male, and if it has XX, it is a female.

4) Genes are located on chromosomes, whose behavior during meiosis and fertilization accounts for inheritance patters.

5) Crossing over can separate linked alleles, producing gametes with recombinant chromosomes.

Ch.8 The Cellular Basis of Reproduction and Inheritance

HOW DO PROKARYOTIC CELLS PERFORM CELL DIVISION WITHOUT NUCLEUS?
--> Cell division in prokaryotic organisms is simpler than in eukaryotes. This is because prokaryotes have much less complex DNA, and they don't have to worry about ensuring that each of the new cells receives an approximately equal number of organelles. All cells reproduce by dividing the middle until the cell membrane pinches closed and two new daughter cells are formed. In prokaryotes,once the DNA of the cell is replicated, each copy moves toward an opposite side of the cell by attaching to the cell membrane. The cell then elongates until it is approximately double its original size. At the end, the cell membrane on either side pinches inward and forms two new cells. 

WHY CAN'T PROKARYOTIC CELLS PERFORM MITOSIS?
--> Prokaryotic cells cannot go through mitosis. This is because mitosis is a division of nucleus into nuclei containing the same number of chromosomes. However, prokaryotic cells do not have nucleus, thus making it impossible.


WHAT HAPPENS TO THE NUMBER OF CHROMOSOMES WHEN FERTILIZATION HAPPENS?
--> A sperm has 23 chromosomes, and an egg also has 23 of them. When they fertilize, there will be 46 chromosomes. An offspring that is going to be made will have 46 chromosomes at the end. But its sex will only have 23 of them. That is how a human is like. This offspring will have 46 chromosomes but they are all mixed of 23 chromosomes from the sperm, and the other 23 from the egg. Also when meiosis occurs, all the chromosomes perform cross over, so it all depends on which sperm and egg fertilizes. This is why there is no identical people in the world because the possibility is almost 0%. It is almost impossible to happen to make two identical people.


SUMMARY:
There are two ways of reproduction for living things. Asexual reproduction, offsprings are identical to the original cell or organism. It only requires one parent, and sexual reproduction, it requires two parents and offsprings get genes from both of the parents. Cell division is the reproduction of cells. Roles of Asexual reproduction are reproduction of an entire single-celled organism, growth of a multicellular organism, growth from a fertilized egg into an adult, and repair and replacement of cells in an adult. For sexual reproduction is that sperm and egg production.
Binary fission is a type of cell division which occurs in prokaryotic cells. Two identical cells arise from one cell. Cell cycle consists of two stages. Interphase, duplication of cell contents, which includes G1, S, and G2, and mitotic phase, the division of duplicated contents, which includes mitosis and cytokinesis.
There are two types of reproduction of eukaryotic cells. Mitosis and Meiosis. Mitosis progresses through a series of stages. Interphase, prophase, prometaphase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase. Cytokinesis often overlaps telophase. During interphase, cytoplasmic contents are duplicated and two centrosomes form in the cytoplasm, and in the nucleus, chromosomes duplicate during the S phase. During prophase, in the cytoplasm, microtubules begin to emerge from centrosomes, forming the spindle. In the nucleus, chromosomes coil and become compact, and nucleoli disappears. During metaphase, spindle is fully formed, and chromosomes align at the cell equator, kinetochores of sister chromatids are facing the opposite poles of the spindle. During anaphase, sister chromatids separate at the centromeres, daughter chromosomes are moved to opposite pole of the cell, and the cell elongates due to lengthening of nonkinetochore microtubules. During telophase, the cell continues to elongate, the nuclear envelope forms around chromosomes each pole, establishing daughter nuclei, the spindle disappears, and chromatin uncoils. In cytokinesis, cytoplasm is divided into separate cells. Cleavage furrows is formed for animal cells for division, and cell plate is formed for plant cells.
Cancer cells escape controls on the cell cycle. They divide quickly. often in the absence of growth factors. They spread to other tissues through the circulatory system. Tumors get formed. There are three classifications of cancer by origin, carcinomas, sacromas, leukemias, and lymphomas.
Meiosis is a reproduction of sex cells. It also consists a series of stages but they perform twice. During prophase I, contents in nucleus duplicate. During metaphase I, tetrads align at the cell equator. During Anaphase I, homologous pairs separate and move toward the end of the cell. During telophase I, duplicated chromosomes have reached the poles and a nuclear envelope forms around them. Next stage is meiosis II, which follows meiosis I without chromosomes duplication. During metaphase II, duplicated chromosomes align at the cell. During anaphase II, sister chromatids separate and chromosomes move toward opposite poles. During telophase II, chromosomes have reeached the poles of the cell, and a nuclear envelope forms around each set of chromosomes.

KEY TERMS:
-chromatin: DNA+ proteins
-centromere: a join of sister chromatids. Made of protein
-cell cycle: an ordered sequence of events for cell division
-mitosis: division of the nucleus
-cytokinesis: division of cytoplasm
-mitotic spindle: composed of microtubules, produced by centrosomes to divide the chromosomes
-centrosomes: structures in the cytoplasm that organize microtubule arrangement, only in animal cells
-growth factor: proteins that stimulate division
-cell cycle control system: a set of molecules, including growth factors, that triggers and coorinates events of the cell cycle
-carcinomas: a type of cancer that arise in external or internal body coverings
-sarcomas: a type of cancer that arise in supportive and connective tissue
-leukemias/lymphomas: a type of cancer that arise from blood-forming tissues

This diagram shows movement of chromosomes during mitosis. The first step is prophase, when the chromosomes are form and nuclear envelope begins to dissolve. The second step is metaphase, when chromosomes line up in the middle of the cell. Spindles get attached to the centromere. During anaphase, the chromosomes are pulled apart from each other toward the end of the cell. During the last step, telophase, cleavage furrows are formed, and at the same time nuclear envelope begin to reform. The result of this step is two identical daughter cells.

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3kpR5RSJ7SA

This video shows more details about mitosis.

5 FACTS:
1) Mitosis is a reproduction of cells, and meiosis is a reproduction of sex cells.
2) Cytokinesis is division of cytoplasm.
3) Cells control how many cells they will reproduce, but cancer cells do not.
4) Animal cells form cleavage furrow, and plant cells form cell plate.
5) There are 46 chromosomes in human cells. After duplication it will go up to 92, and after division of sex cells, each will have 23.

Ch.7 Photosynthesis: Using Light to Make Food

WHAT IS RUBISCO?
Rubisco is used from the beginning of the calvin cycle. From the second that CO2 is taken in by the plants, Rubisco starts the process. Starting with phase 1; carbon fixation which is where ATP, and NADPH are produced. The second phase; reduction, is where glucose is produced. In the final cycle, regeneration of CO2 acceptor, ribulose bisphosphate is produced. And the the calvin cycle continues all over again, producing more and more ATP and glucose. The reason that Rubisco is so important to our world is that it acts as a catalyst for the Calvin Cycle, therefore making sure that the cycle can metabolize ATP from glucose (sugar). This also makes it the most abdunent protein on earth.

HOW IS PHOTOSYNTHESIS RELATED TO CELLULAR RESPIRATION?
In photosynthesis, plants use the sun's energy as light to transform carbon dioxide and water into glucose. In cellular respiration, glucose is ultimately broken down to yield carbon dioxide and water, and the energy from this process is stored as ATP molecules. They are the opposite process of each other. Animals need oxygen to breathe in order to perform cellular respiration, and plants need CO2 to perform photosynthesis. If those process didn't happen, there would be no living things in universe.

HOW DOES PHOTOSYNTHESIS AFFECT GLOBAL WARMING?
Photosynthesis reduces the amount of carbon dioxide in the air. This is the difference between plants and animals. The carbon dioxide is stored in the plants until they decompose or they are burned. For example, each fall when the trees lose their leaves and the plants die the level of carbon in the atmosphere goes up. The rest of the tree, bark etc.., does not continue to absorb carbon. Plants only take in carbon so long as they are growing and not after they have reached their natural height. Planting trees and other plants is one component of the solution to global warming, but the number of plants we have now cannot consume more carbon than they already do, and there is some evidence that warmer temperatures make photosynthesis more difficult.

SUMMARY:
Photosynthesis is a totally opposite process of cellular respiration. Plants produce a simple sugar and oxygen, using water and carbon dioxide.
Formula of Photosynthesis:
6CO2 + 6 H2O --(light energy)--> C6H12O6 + 6O2
The most important organelle in photosynthesis is chloroplast. It is consisting of photosynthetic pigments, enzymes, and other molecules grouped together in membranes. Stomata are tiny pores in the leaf that allow carbon dioxide to enter and oxygen to exit. Photosynthesis occurs in thylakoids, which segregates the stroma from another compartment. Photosynthesis is a redox process. Light energy is converted to chemical energy, which is stored in the chemical bonds of sugar molecules, as a result of this process. There are two stages in photosynthesis, light reactions and calvin cycle.
In the light reactions, light energy is converted in thylakoid membranes to chemical energy and O2. Water is split to provide the O2 as well as electrons. Reactants are water, light, NADP+ and ADP. Products are ATP, NADPH, and O2. Light and water go into the second photo system. While that is happening, they excite electrons and electrons move because of electron transport until first photo system Once they get to this point, light comes through to excite the electrons to produce NADPH. The hydrogen gradient is inside the membrane. Hydrogens move through ATP synthase to produce ATP.
In Calvin cycle, which occurs in the stroma of the chloroplast, it builds sugar molecules from CO2 and the products of the light reactions. Reactants are CO2, ATP, and NADPH. Products are glucose, NADP+, and ADP. CO2 bonds with rubisco to form two 3-carbons. ATP and NADPH are oxidized which reduces two 3-carbons. One of them leaves the cycle and the other five form rubisco.
The light behaves as photons. Chloroplasts contain several different pigments all absorb light of different wavelengths. For example, chlorophyll is a absorbs blue violet and red light and reflects green. Chlorophyll b absorbs blue and orange and reflects yellow-green. The carotenoids absorb mainly blue-green light and reflect yellow and orange. Also they are responsible for absorbing photons, capturing solar power in another words, causing release of electrons.
Within the photosystem, the energy is passed from molecule to molecule. At the end, it reaches the reaction center where a primary electron acceptor accepts these electrons and consequently becomes reduced. There are two types of photosystems. Photosystem I(P700) and photosystem II(P680). II is the first one because its pigment absorbs light with a wavelength of 680 nm.  I is the second one because it absorbs light with a wavelength of 700 nm. During the light reactions, light energy is transformed into the chemical energy of ATP and NADPH. Electrons are removed from water pass from photosystem II to I and are accepted by NADP+. Electron transport chain works as a bridge between I and II.

KEY TERMS:
1) Autotrophs: living things that can make their own food without using organic molecules derived from any other living things
2) Chlorophyll: important light absorbing pigment in chloroplasts. Responsible for the green color of plants.
3) Electromagnetic spectrum: the full range of electromagnetic wavelengths
4) Photon: a fixed quantity of light energy, and the shorter the wavelength, the greater the energy.
5) Photosystems: light harvesting complexes surrounding a reaction center complex.
6) Photophosphorylation: the chemiosmotic production of ATP in photosynthesis.
7) Photorespiration: a process that rubisco adds oxygen instead of carbon dioxide to RuBP and produces a two-carbon compound.
8) C4 plants: the plants that first fix carbon dioxide into a four-carbon compound
9) CAM plants: the plants that conserve water by opening their stomata and admitting CO2 only at night
10) Carbon fixation: a process that during the calvin cycle, CO2 is incorporated into organic compounds.

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hj_WKgnL6MI
Light reaction produces ADP and Pi from ATP, using light from the sun. It occurs in chloroplast. It has photo system I and II. They excite electrons to produce ATP. NADPH is produced by NADP+ bonding with hydrogen, which are in hydrogen gradient. It is simpler than cellular respiration.

5 FACTS:
1) The products of the light reactions are NADPH, ATP, and O2.
2) There are two stages in photosynthesis, the light reactions, and Calvin cycle.
3) There are two types of photosystems, photosystem I and photosystem II. Photosystem II comes first and I comes the next.
4) Photosysthesis is a opposite process of cellular respiration. It produces sugar and O2, using CO2 and light and water.
5) Chrolophyll is responsible for the color of the leaves. Green color is represented by them.

Ch.6 How Cells Harvest Chemical Energy

WHAT ARE THE DIFFERENCES BETWEEN FAST AND SLOW TWITCH MUSCLE FIBERS?
Because fast fibers use anaerobic metabolism to create fuel, they are much better at generating short bursts of strength or speed than slow muscles. However they get tired more quickly. Fast fibers generally produce the same amount of force per contraction as slow muscles, but they get their name because they are able to fire faster. Having more fast fibers can be an asset to a sprinter since she needs to quickly generate a lot of force. Olympic sprinters are supposed to have about 80 % fast fibers, while those who excel in marathons tend to have 80% slow fibers. Slow fibers are more continuous and are able to keep making ATP since they take oxygen more. They are smaller in diameter, red in color, they depend on oxidative phosphorylation for their ATP supply, they have better blood supply, they have more mitochondria, and more myoglobin.

HOW DOES ATP WORK IN THE BODY?
ATP is stored in chemical bonds and is released when the last phosphate is lost and ATP becomes ADP. It is used to do work in the cell by a reaction that removes one of the phosphate-oxygen groups, leaving ADP. When ATP converts to ADP, the ATP is spent. Then the ADP is usually immediately recycled in the mitochondria where it is recharged and comes out again as ATP. The total human body content of ATP is only about 50 grams, which must be constantly recycled everyday. The ultimate source of energy for constructing ATP is food. ATP is the carrier and regulation-storage unit of energy. The average daily intake of 2500 food calories translates into a turnover of a whopping 180 kilograms of ATP.

WHAT IS THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN GLUCOSE, NADH AND FADH2?
Glucose has the most energy and during cellular respiration, it is broken down. The energy that is in glucose is stored in many molecules of NADH and a few of FADH2. NADH is able to store more energy than FADH2. This is why it is more abundant electron carrier. Also NADH can be synthesized from scratch or from tryphtophan. FADH2 has accommodation for two hydrogens while NAD accepts one hydrogen molecule. In NAD, an electron pair one hydrogen are transferred, with a second hydrogen released into the medium. Electron transfer by FADH2 produces less ATP than by NADH.

SUMMARY:
This chapter discusses about how ATP is produced, and how cells work for the process. There are two types of muscle fibers, slow and fast. Slow fibers such as marathoners make ATP using oxygen, aerobically. Fast fibers, such as sprinters, make ATP without oxygen anaerobically. Energy is essential for life processes. Photosynthesis make glucose from CO2 and H2O and releases O2. Other organisms need O2 and energy and release CO2 and H2O. Animals perform cellular respiration and plants perform both photosynthesis and cellular respiration since they have mitochondria. Breathing is the key of cellular respiration. The equation of cellular respiration is; C6H12O6 + 6O2 --> 6CO2 + energy. This tells that the atoms of the starting molecules glucose and O2 regroup to form the products CO2 and H2O. In this exergonic process, the chemical energy of the bonds in glucose is transferred and stored (banked). Cellular respiration can produce up to 38 ATP molecules for each glucose molecule. During cellular respiration, carbon-hydrogen bonds of glucose get broken, and electrons will be transferred to oxygen. Dehydrogenase (enzymes) remove hydrogen from an organic molecules. They also use NAD+ to shuttle electrons. NADH will be formed by transferring electrons to NAD+.
There are 3 stages in order to produce ATP in cellular respiration.
1) Glycolysis: Begins respiration by breaking glucose, a six carbon molecule, into two molecules of a three-carbon compound called pyruvate. It occurs in cytoplasm.
2) The citric acid cycle: Breaks down pyruvate into carbon dioxide and supplies the third stage with electrons. It occurs in mitochondria.
3) Oxidative phosphorylation: Electrons are shuttled through the electron transport chain. ATP is generated through oxidative phosphorylation associated with chemiosmosis. It occurs in inner mitochondrion membrane.
In glycolysis, glucose will be cut in half to produce two molecules of pyruvate. Two NAD+ are reduced to two NADH. At the same time, two ATP are produced by substrate-level phosphorylation. The pyruvate formed in glycolysis is transported the mitochondria, where it is prepared for entry into the next level. With the help of CoA, the acetyl enters the citric acid cycle. Oxidative phosphorylation requires the involvement of electron transport and chemiosmosis and also adequate supply of oxygen. NADH and FADH2 are involved as well.
There are three different categories of cellular poisons that affect cellular respiration.
1) Blocking of the electron transport chain, such as cyanide and carbon monoxide.
2) Inhibiting ATP synthase, such as oligomycin
3) Production of the membrane leaky to hydrogen ions, such as dinitrophenol
Muscles are able to oxidize NADH through lactic acid fermentation. NADH is oxidized to NAD+ when pyruvate is reduced to lactate. Pyruvate is serving as an electron sink, a place to dispose of the electrons generated by oxidation reactions in glycolysis.



KEY TERMS:
-kilocalorie: the quantity of heat required to raise the temperature of 1 kilogram of water by 1C.
-redox reaction: the movement of electrons from one molecule to another. Oxidation-reduction reaction.
-chemiosmosis: process that the potential energy of this concentration gradient is used to make ATP
-substrate-level phosphorylation: process that an enzyme transfers a phosphate group from a substrate molecule to ADP, forming ATP
-fermentation: an anaerobic energy-generating process taking advantages of glycolysis, which is producing two ATP and reducing NAD+ to NADH
-yeasts: single-called fungi that not only can use respiration for energy but can ferment under anaerobic conditions
-dehydrogenase: an enzyme that is used in the process of oxidizing glucose
-intermediates: compounds that form between the initial reactant, glucose, and the final product, pyruvate
-obligate anaerobes: prokaryotes that live in stagnant ponds and deep in the soil.
-facultative anaerobe: process that is able to make ATP either by fermentation or by oxidative phosphorylation, depending on whether O2 is available.

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=iXmw3fR8fh0

Glycolysis produces 2 ATP molecules by substrate level phosphorylation. Also it makes 2 pyruvate. In energy investment phase, it starts with one molecule of glucose and hexopkinase breaks down the bonds.  Then in this stage, dihydroxyacetone phosphate and G3P are produced, but isomerase converts them into two G3P. Next payoff phase, NADH is made and at the end, pyruvate will be made and 4 ATP produced at the same time. It happens in the cytoplasm.
In the citric acid cycle, reactants are acetyl CoA. ATP and NADH and FADH2 are produced. 2 molecules are created in net amount and 6 molecules of NADH and 2 molecules of FADH2 are produced as well. CO2, oxaloacetate, as if combines with acetyl in the first step. It occurs in the mitochondria.
In oxidative phosphorylation, NADH and FAOH2, which give away their electrons to the electron transport chain as reactants. The reactants of chemiosmosis are ADP and phosphate, which form ATP as the products. They produce water molecules in the electron transport chain. Oxygen and hydrogen are two important molecules as are the mulriprote, complexes in the energy transport chain. 32 to 34 molecules of ATP are produced while no new NADH or FADH2 are formed. It happens in the inner membrane of the mitochondria.

5 FACTS:
1) Although glucose is considered to be the source of sugar for respiration, carbohydrates, proteins, and fats are the actual three sources for generation of ATP
2) Glycolysis is the universal energy-harvesting process of living organisms
3) The statement "plants perform photosynthesis and animals perform cellular respiration." is wrong, because plants do perform cellular respiration with mitochondria as well.
4) There are three stages of producing ATP, glycolysis, the citric acid cycle, and oxidative phosphorylation.
5) The total number of ATP molecules per a glucose molecule produced are 32 to 34. This is about 40% of a glucose molecule potential energy.

Ch.5 The Working Cell

WHY DO CELLS USE ATP WHEN SUGAR MOLECULES HAVE MORE ENERGY?

Cells use sugars because all of energy origins are from glucose. However the cell breaks down the glucose and stores the energy in ATP. The reason why it stores energy in ATP is that because the cell can only use a little bit of energy to work at one time. Therefore, if it just directly uses glucose to do work, there will be a large amount of energy released, and all the energy it cannot use will just escape as heat. So by storing the energy in smaller amounts in ATP, not as much energy is wasted as heat.

HOW DO ANIMALS AND PLANTS PERFORM OSMOREGULATION?
Osmoregulation keeps the body's fluids from becoming too concentrated. Animals must maintain the right concentration of solutes and amount of water in the body fluids. There is no specific osmoregulation organs in higher plants. Control of water intake and loss means those internal and external factors, which affect the rate of transpiration. Plants share with animals the problems of obtaining water and in disposing of the surplus. Some plants develop methods of water conservation. Xerophytes are plants in dry places. They have better qualities of osmoregulation. Cactus have water stored in large parenchyma tissues so they can get more water. Other plants have leaf modifications to keep water.


WHAT ARE THE DIFFERENCES BETWEEN EXOCYTOSIS AND ENDOCYTOSIS?
Exocytosis is the process by which a cell expels molecules and other objects that are too large to pass through the cellular membrane. Endocytosis is the process by which a cell takes in molecules and other objects that are too large to pass through the cellular membrane. The basic mechanism of those are pretty much the same. Both make use of vesicles for their molecular transport. Vesicles are used for storage and transport. Since they are enclosed by a membrane, inside they can have a completely different composition than that of their cell.

KEY TERMS:
-Diffusion: the tendency for particles of any kind to spread out evenly in an available space, moving from where they are more concentrated to regions where they are less concentrated
-Passive Transport: diffusion across a cell membrane does not require energy
-Fluid Mosaic: the surface appears mosaic because of the protein embedded in the phospholipids and fluid because the proteins can drift about in the phospholipids
-Osmosis: a physical model of the diffusion of water molecules across a selectively permeable membrane
-Aquaporins: the very rapid diffusion of water into and out of certain cells, such as plant cells, kidney clls and red blood cells, is made possible by transport proteins
-Active Transport: moving a solute against its concentration gradient using energy
-Thermodynamics: the study of energy transformations that occur in a collection of matter
-Cellular Respiration: a chemical process that uses oxygen to convert the chemical energy stored in fuel molecules to a form of chemical energy that the cell can use to perform work
-Energy Coupling: the use of energy released from exergonic reactions to drive essential endergonic reactions. It is a crucial ability of all cells
-Cofactors: many enzymes that require nonprotein helpers

SUMMARY:
Membranes are composed of phospholipids and proteins and they are described as fluid mosaic. Phospholipids are made of fatty acids kinks which are unsaturated. Membranes exhibit selective permeability. Non polar molecules cross more easily than polar molecules because polar molecules are not soluble in lipids. Phospholipids can spontaneously self-assemble into simple membranes. Particles move in concentration gradient to less concentration gradient. This movement without energy is called passive transport. Osmosis moves water across a membrane down its concentration gradient until the concentration of solute is equal on both sides of the membrane. Animal cells can maintain their water balance by osmoregulation. However plant and prokaryotic, and fungal cells have different issues because of their cell walls. Cells don't let any substances across the membrane. They require the help of aquaporins. They assist in facilitated diffusion, which is a type of passive transport. In active transport, they move particles against its concentration gradient. They always require the energy in the form of ATP. When cells move large molecules across membrane, they use exocytosis to export bulky molecules, and endocytosis to import substances useful to the livelihood of the cell.
There are two kinds of energy for the capacity to do work and cause change. Kinetic energy for motion and potential for resulting of its location. There are two important laws of thermodynamics. The first law is energy in universe is constant. It cannot be created or destroyed. The second law is energy conversions increase the disorder of the universe. So it cannot be recycled. Exergonic reaction is a chemical reaction that releases energy. Also cellular respiration releases energy and heat and produces products but is able to use the released energy to perform work.
Living things produce many endergonic and exergonic chemical reactions. Those are all called metabolism. One cell mainly does three types of cellular work; chemical work, transport work, and mechanical work. ATP is used when a cell needs energy immediately. It is  renewable source of energy. Energy that is available to break bonds and form new ones is called EA. EA can be speed up by enzymes. They require the certain conditions for them such as temperature, and pH. They also need cofactors and coenzymes. They can be inhibited by competitive inhibitors and noncompetitive inhibitors.

This is a diagram of endocytosis. The plasma membrane takes a particle into a cell, and it will turn a food valuole. Those are the main functions of endocytosis.
-Receive nutrients
-Entry of pathogens
-Cell migration and adhesion
-Signal receptors

This is a diagram of exocytosis. It releases enzymes, hormones, proteins, and glucose to be used in other parts of the body. Also those are the main functions of exocytosis.

• 
  
• -Neurotransmitters (in the case of neurons)
• -Communicate defense measures against a disease
• -Expel cellular waste

5 FACTS:

1) To make the concentration equal, passive transport and active transport occur. Active transport requires energy.

2) Tonicity describes the ability of a solution to cause a cell to gain or lose water.

3) Many substances are necessary for viability of a cell do not freely diffuse across the membrane. 

4) Kinetic energy performs work by transferring water. Example, heat is a kinetic energy associated with the random movement of atoms.

5) The first law of thermodynamics: energy in the universe is constant. It cannot be created or destroyed. The second law of thermodynamics: energy conversions increase disorder of the universe. 

Ch.4 A Tour of the Cell

WHAT ARE THE PROBLEMS WITH SPERM MOTILITY?

Sperm motility is a problem. For example, his sperm shape is different from the other sperm shape, he has too much sperm, and how his sperms move is not right. When he as a fertility problem, it can cause a severe loss of self esteem, not to mention the frustration involved with not being able to have a baby. Knowing what can cause low sperm motility and other fertility problems for men can, however, help a man to know how to proceed with addressing the problem.

WHY DO NOT  ANIMALS PHOTOSYNTHESIZE?

Because if animals do photosynthesize, food chain will not work. Also animals can get energy from eating other organisms. That is why animals don't have cell wall so we can move easily. Plants cannot move, so they need to photosynthesize to get energy. Also animals need O2 to breathe. If we could photosynthesize, we will need CO2, which we produce now, but not use. There would be no O2 for animals to breathe. That is why I think that animals don't photosynthesize, because we don't need to.

WHAT HAPPENS IF A CELL GETS DISEASE?
There are some cell diseases. I am going to answer one of them, Leukemia. Leukemia is a disease that number of white blood corpuscle increases more than number of red blood corpuscle. The numbers those two blood cells will be unbalanced. Thus losing hair, having a fever, out of breath, feeling of less blood, and etc. It is usually caused from smoking, and some how.  There are many cell diseases like that. The reasons why those happen are mostly from genetic.



SUMMARY:
     Robert Hooke first observed cells in 1665. As we know about cells, we developed the microscopes. We have basically 4 kinds of microscopes. Light microscope, works by passing visible light through a specimen which can magnify objects about 1000 times, Electron microscope, uses a beam of electrons, which can magnify up to 100,000 times, Scanning Electron microscope, which can show a specimen with 3D, and Transmission Electron microscope, used to study the details of internal cell structure. Cell theory states that al living things are composed of cells and that all cells come from other cells.
     There are two types of cells. Prokaryotic cells, and eukaryotic cells. Prokaryotic cells compose bacteria and archaea, and eukaryotic cells compose other forms of life. The surface area of a cell is important for carrying out the cell's functions. Cells are all bounded by a plasma membrane. All have chromosomes carrying genes made of DNA. And they all contain ribosomes, tiny structures that make proteins according to instructions from the genes. The entire region between the nucleus and the plasma membrane is called the cytoplasm. There are various organelles in an eukaryotic cell. There are four different life processes in eukaryotic cells; 1) manufacturing 2) breakdown of molecules 3) energy processing, 4) structural support, movement, and communication.
     Phospholipids are the main components of biological membranes. It has two distinct regions; a negatively charged and thus hydrophilic phosphate group and two non-polar, hydrophobic fatty acid tails. Non-polar molecules such as O2 can easily pass through its hydrophobic interior. Some of these proteins form channels that allow specific ions and other hydrophilic molecules to cross the membrane.
     During a cell reproduction, as a cell prepares to divide, the DNA is copied and the thin chromatin fibers coil up. Nuclear envelope controls the flow of materials into and out of the nucleus. It connects with ER. Ribosomes are found in two locations. Free ribosomes are in the fluid of the cytoplasm, while bound ribosomes are attached to the outside of ER or nuclear envelope. Smooth ER is important in the synthesis of lipids. It is a detoxification in liver cells and also a calcium ion storage. Rough ER is a synthesis of membrane lipids and proteins, secretory proteins, and hydrolytic enzymes. It is also a formation of transport vesicles. Cell's structure and activities are organized by internal skeleton. Cytoskeleton supports the cell structure and cell motility. Microfilaments form a 3D network just inside the plasma membrane that helps support the cell's shape. Intermediate filaments serve mainly to reinforce cell shape and to anchor certain organelles. It holds nucleus as well. Microtubules are readily disassembled in a reverse manner and the tubulin subunits can then be reused in the cell. They can grow out from a centrosome. They shape and support the cell and also act as tracks along which organelles equipped with motor proteins can move. Cells have an ability to move. They have cilia which sweep.
     Three types of cell junctions are found in animal tissues. At tight junctions, the membranes of neighboring cells are every tightly pressed against each other, knit together by proteins. Anchoring junctions function like rivets, fastening cells together into strong sheets. Gap junctions are channels that allow small molecules to flow through protein-lined pores between neighboring cells.

KEY TERMS:
-Nucleoid: the region where the DNA of a prokaryotic cells is coiled
-Flagella: longer projections that help attach prokaryotes to surfaces
-Cellular metabolism: many of the chemical activities of cells that occur within organelles
-Chromatin: a material that makes up eukaryotic chromosomes
-Vesicles: the transfer of membrane segments that connect physically the membranes such as endo-membrane system
-Golgi apparatus: a structure of a cell that packages substances and send them out
-Lysosome: a digestive system of a cell
-Vacuole: digestion; storage of chemicals; cell enlargement; controls water balance
-Endosymbiosis: hypothesis of it proposes that mitochondria and chloroplasts were formerly small prokaryotes that began living within larger cells
-Granum: a stack for thylakoids

This is a diagram of a cell. As you can see, there are various structures in a cell. Those structures are grouped in four types as I mentioned in summary.

1) Manufacturing

-Nucleus: DNA synthesis; RNA synthesis. Nucleolus is inside.

-Ribosomes: protein synthesis. 

-Smooth ER: produces lipid. Detoxification in liver cells. Calcium ion storage.

-Rough ER: produces mainly protein. Has ribosomes attached. 

2) Breakdown

-Lysosomes: only in animal cells. Digestive system of cells. Recycles food.

-Vacuoles: Digestion. Storage of chemicals, cell enlargement, water balance.

-Peroxisomes: Diverse metabolic processes with breakdown of H2O2 by-product.

3) Energy Processing

-Mitochondria: makes chemical energy. 

-Chloroplasts: only in plant cells and some protists. produces light energy to chemical energy sugars

4) Support, Movement, and Communication Between Cells

-Cytoskeleton: including cilia, flagella, and centrioles in animal cells. maintains cell shape. anchorage for organelles: movement of organelles within cells and also cell itself. mechanical transmission of signals from exterior of cell to interior. communication between cells.

-Extracellular Matrix: only in animal cells. Binding of cells in tissues; surface protections; regulation of cellular activities.

-Cell junctions: communication between cells. binding of cells in tissues

-Cell walls: only in plants, fungi, and some protists. maintains the cell shape and skeletal support. protects surface. binding of cells in tissues.


5 Facts:
1) There are many structures in a cell. They all perform the important functions for a cell.
2) There are two different kinds of cell. Prokaryotic, and Eukaryotic. Prokaryotic cells are simpler than Eukaryotic.
3) Manufacturing, breaking down of molecules, energy processing, and structural support, movement, and communication are the main life process for eukaryotic cells.
4) Animal cells have lysosome and they do not have cell wall. Not having cell walls make it easier for animals to move. They have plasma membrane instead.
5) Plant cells have chloroplast, and cell wall. 

Ch.3 The Molecules of Cell

WHY DO ISOMERS HAVE DIFFERENT PROPERTIES?
The chemical properties of compounds are decided by the way the compounds react in different environments which is in turn decided by the need for bonding. Isomers are compounds with same molecular formula but different structural formula. This means that though the number of carbon and hydrogen atoms are the same, the bonding is different, and so one might be an alkane while another of the isomer could be an alcohol all meaning they react in pretty different ways. For example, CH3CH2OH and CH3OCH3 are structural isomers but have different boiling points.

WHAT IS HFCS? WHY IS THERE A PROLEM WITH IT?

HFCS is made from corn, and in the mid 1970s we had an excess of corn crops in America. At the same time sugar prices were high, which meant that food prices were higher for the consumer. It was very cheap to produce and at the same time, it was six times sweeter than cane sugar. This is how it started. However there is a problem with HFCS. Sucrose and dextrose can both be broken down in your body before they ever make it to our liver, however fructose does not. It reaches to your liver. HFCS is used for fast food, sodas, cereal, energy bars, and more. Scientists found out that not fructose cause the body to burn sugar as opposed to burning fat. It has been found that our metabolism veers towards fat storage when consuming high levels of fructose. Therefore, HFCS contributes to obesity not only by our brains don't know that our stomachs are full, but also by causing the body to burn sugar rather than fat in our cells.

WHAT ARE THE BAD AFFECTIONS FOR USING ANABOLIC STEROIDS?
Anabolic steroids can harm your health by long-term use or excessive doses. These effects include harmful changes in cholesterol levels. It causes acne, high blood pressure, liver damage, and dangerous changes in the structure of the left ventricle of the heart. Also if you are a sport man, muscle that is built by steroids is considered as cheating. You are not allowed to use steroids. Steroids are only sold at a black market which smuggled or even counterfeit drugs are sold to users.


KEY TERMS
-Carbon Skeleton: the chain of carbon atoms in an organic molecule
-Isomer: compounds with the same formula but different structures
-Hydroxyl Group: consists of a hydrogen atom bonded to an oxygen atom, which in turn is bonded to the carbon skeleton
-Carbonyl Group: linked by a double bond to an oxygen atom. If the carbon of the carbonyl group is at the end of a carbon skeleton, the compound is called an aldehyde. If it's within the chain, the compound is called a ketone
-Carboxyl Group: consists of a carbon double-bonded to an oxygen and also bonded to a hydroxyl group. It acts as an acid by contributing an H+ to a solution and becoming ionized
-Amino Group: composed of a nitrogen bonded to two hydrogen atoms and the carbon skeleton. It acts as a base by picking up an H+ from a solution.
-Phosphate Group: consists of a phosphorus atom bonded to four oxygen atoms. It's usually ionized and attached to the carbon skeleton by one of its oxygen atoms
-Methyl Group: consists of a carbon bonded to three hydrogens
-Enzymes: specialized macromolecules that speed up chemical reactions in cells
-Glycogen: excess sugar that animals store in the form of another glucose polysaccharide

-Phospholipids: the major component of cell membranes. They contain TWO fatty acids attached to glycerol

SUMMARY
     Most of the molecules that a cell makes are composed of carbon atoms. Those molecules, carbon-based, are called organic compounds. Carbon shares electrons with other atoms in four covalent bonds. Methane and other compounds composed of only carbon and hydrogen are called hydrocarbons. Carbon skeleton, the chain of carbon in an organic molecule, can be unbranched as in butane, or branched, as in isobutane. It also includes double bonds, as in 1-butene and 2-butene. They have the same molecular formula, C4H8, but differ in the position of their double bond. Those compounds are called isomers. To determine the properties of organic compounds, we separate them into six chemical groups by their characteristics.
1) Hydroxyl group
2) Carbonyl group
3) Carboxyl group
4) Amino group
5) Phosphate group
6) Methyl group
     There are four main classes of large biological molecules. Carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids. Cells make macromolecules by joining smaller molecules into chains called polymers. Polymers can be broken down. To digest them, a cell carries out hydrolysis, which is to add water and makes them into OH and H.
     Monosaccharides(CH2O) are the simplest carbohydrates. For example, glucose and fructose are two of them. These can form more complex sugars by hooking with single-unit sugars. Cells construct a disaccharide from two monosaccharides by dehydrating. By dehydration reaction, one oxygen will be left, which is called maltose. HFCS is cheaper than sugar and easier to mix into drinks and processed food since fructose is used, instead of glucose. However it has a problem for obesity. Animals store excess sugar in the form of another glucose polysaccharide, called glycogen in our liver and muscle cells.  Cellulose is the most abundant organic compound on Earth. It is a polymer of glucose. Most animals do not have enzymes that can hydrolyze the glucose linkages in cellulose, so it is not a nutrient for humans. However it contributes to digestive system health. Insects use chitin and crustaceans to build their exoskeleton.
     We store lipids in our body. A fat is a large lipid made from two kinds of smaller molecules, used for energy storage. Cells cannot exist without phospholipids, the major component of cell membranes. They are similar to fats but they contain two fatty acids, instead of three. Anabolic steroids are are synthetic variants of the male hormone testosterone. It builds up muscle and bone mass in males, but it is considered as drug, and it is illegal to use it for human body. Proteins are essential to the structures and functions of life. It is constructed from amino acid monomers. They structure cells, and organisms and participate in everything they do. Proteins need amino acids to like by peptide bonds. A protein has a specific shape that determines its function. The dependence of protein function on a protein's specific shape becomes clear when proteins are altered. In a process called denaturation, polypeptide chains unravel, losing their specific shape and, as a result, their function.
     The primary structure of a protein is its unique sequence of amino acids. In it, there is a secondary structure that holds alpha helix and pleated sheet. There is tertiary structure that has polypeptide, single subunit of transthyretin. And then quaternary structure, that has transthyretin, with four identical polypeptide subunits.

This diagram shows a dehydration reaction builds a polymer chain. The short polymer ends with H. And a monomer starts with HO, and ends with H. Between the short polymer and the monomer, H and HO form H2O, and the short polymer and the monomer get together to make a longer polymer. This is a dehydration reaction. It happens a lot our bodies. 


5 FACTS: 
1) Most of the world population is lack of lactase. We are not able to digest milk based food.
2) Organic compounds are the carbon based compounds.
3) Hydrophobic is water fear. It does not dissolve in water. Hydrophilic dissolves in water easily.
4) There are six functional groups. They are all hydrophilic, but methane. Also they are similar.
5) The four basic biological molecules. Carbohydrate, Protein, Lipid, Nucleic Acid.

Ch.2 The Chemical Basis of Life

WHAT HAPPENS IF WE ARE LACK OF TRACE ELEMENTS?
If you are lack of trace elements, it means that you are not getting enough nutrition for your body. You always need enough trace elements and minerals in your body. They have three important functions.
1) Structural components of body organs and tissues.
2) Constituents of body fluids and tissues as electrolytes concerned with body fluid balance, acid-base balance, membrane permeability, tissue irritability.
3) Catalysts in enzyme and hormone systems.
Those functions will stop working in your body. To prevent making those functions stop working, trace elements are needed in your body.

WHY DO WE USE RADIOACTIVE ISOTOPE IF IT COULD HARM US?
Since minute traces of radioactive isotopes can be sensitively detected by means of the Geiger counter and other methods, such as they use in medical therapy, diagnosis, and research. In therapy, they are used to kill or inhibit specific malfunctioning cells. There are many ways to use radioactive isotopes in our lives.


HOW CAN WATER STRIDERS WALK ON WATER? WHAT DOES IT HAVE TO DO WITH SURFACE TENSION?
Surface tension is a measure of how difficult it is to stretch or break the surface of liquid. Hydrogen bonds give water unusually high surface tension, making it behave as though it were coated with an invisible film. It is composed of thousands of molecules of water. They bond together, but it is also easy to break the bond. Therefore, when people try to walk on the water, we break the bonds and we sink in the water. However, water striders are too light to break the bonds. Therefore they are able to walk on the water without breaking them.


KEY TERMS
-Matter: anything that occupies space and has mass
-Element: a substance that cannot be broken down to other substances by ordinary chemical means
-Trace Elements: essential elements, but only in minute quantities
-Compound: a substance consisting of two or more different elements combined in a fixed ratio
-Isotopes: atoms that have the same numbers of protons and electrons and behave identically in chemical reactions, but they have different numbers of neutrons
-Ion: an atom or molecule with an electrical charge resulting from a gain or loss of one or more electrons
-Covalent Bond: when two atoms share one or more pairs of outer-shell electrons
-Polar Covalent Bond: the bonds of molecules that are sharing electrons unequally. In this bond, the pulling of shared, negatively charged electrons closer to the more electronegative atom makes that atom partially positive
-Cohesion: the tendency of hydrogen-bonded molecules stick together
-Adhesion: the clinging of one substance to another

SUMMARY
This chapter talks about chemistry the most because studying the structures and functions of living organisms is necessary to learn about life. Living organisms are all composed of matter, which is anything that occupies space and has mass. Matter is composed of elements which are substances that cannot be broken down to other substance by ordinary chemical means. All discovered elements are on periodic table. Trace elements are essential but only in minute quantities. For example, we need one of trace elements, iodine, for our bodies. If you do not take any, you will get goiter. Therefore people add iodine purposely to table salt to improve health. Chemicals are added to food to make it more nutritious, or simply make it look better. Elements also can combine to form compounds, such as H2O. H2(hydrogen) and O2(oxygen) combine and form H2O(water).
Atom is the smallest unit of matter. It consists of protons, electrons, and neutrons. protons and neutrons are tightly packed and electrons are around it. This packed protons and neutrons are called nucleus. The number of protons is called atomic number, and the sum of the protons and neutrons in nucleus is called mass number. Atomic mass is approximately equal to its mass number. Radioactive isotopes are useful as tracers in research on the chemistry of life because organisms incorporate radioactive isotopes of of an element into their molecules just as they do non-radioactive isotopes, and researchers can use special scanning devices to detect the presence of the radioactive isotopes, but it also can be harmful.
Electrons occur only at certain energy levels, called electron shells. For example, hydrogen only has 1 electron, so first shell holds it. However neon has 10 electrons so first shell cannot hold all of them. Thus it has second shell that holds the rest. When two ions with opposite charges attract each other, it is called ionic bond. Salt, NaCl, is an example. When two or more atoms share outer shell electrons, it is called covalent bond. For example, two hydrogen atoms share their electrons, it will turn H2, hydrogen. When hydrogen bonds some other elements, it is called hydrogen bond. It is a weak bond, but it is important in the chemistry of life. There are two types of conditions in the chemistry of life. Acidic and basic conditions. If the number is between 0 to 6 on pH scale, it is acid. If the number is between 8 to 14, it is base. If the number is 7, it is neutral, water.

Mass of ice is lighter than mass of liquid water as you can tell from the diagram. In liquid water, they do not have bonds, so it is easy to change shape. However they have stable bonds in ice, so it does not change shape easily. Also there are not many molecules in the ice so it is lighter than liquid water, which means it flows in the water.

5 FACTS:
1) Living things are all composed of matter.
2) We need 25 essential elements, trace elements, in our bodies always. Such as iron. They prevent disease.
3) An atom is composed of neutron, proton, and electron.
4) Chemical bonds occur depending on number of electrons on the outer shell.
5) Water has more dense than ice. This is because atoms in the ice do not move. They are stuck in the ice.

Ch.1 Exploring Life

WHAT DOES IT MEAN IF SOMETHING IS LIVING?
If something is living, that means that something interacts with its environments, exchanging matter and energy. Also living things are all made of cells. So I think that if something is living, means it has at least one cell or more in its body. Also living things reproduce, grow, develop, and change. Those are the things they all perform. All living things have a lot of performances in common. Also they are responsible to their own environments. What it means by exchanging matter and energy is that if a tree produces H2O from CO2, human breathes H2O which is produced by the tree. And the human exhales CO2 from H2O, the tree gets CO2. This is exchanging matter and energy.

WHY ARE CELLS THE BASIC UNITS OF LIFE?
Because cells are the smallest in the body. Also they are the lowest level in the hierarchy of biological organization at the properties of life emerge. All of our bodies are composed of cells and cells are made from other cells which shows that the cells are the lowest level. Scientists learn about growth, reproduction, and all other functions that living things perform by studying cells because they are all performed by cells. The cell theory holds true for all living things, no matter what. Because They are common to all living things, they can provide information about all life.

WHAT IS NATURAL SELECTION?
Natural selection is the process by which traits become more or less common in a population due to consistent effects upon the survival or reproduction of their bearers. It is a key word of evolution. The natural genetic variation within a population of organisms cause some individuals to survive and reproduce more successfully than others in their current environment. It basically is a process in organisms with certain inherited characteristics are more likely to survive and reproduce than are organisms with other characteristics.


10 Key Terms
-Biosphere: All the environments on Earth that support life.
-Ecosystem: All the organisms living in a particular area, and the nonliving physical components that living things need.
-Organelle: Membrane-bound structure that performs a specific function in a cell.
-Emergent Properties: The property where living things become more and more complex as it goes from cellular level.
-Producers: Photosynthetic organisms that provide the food for a typical ecosystem.
-Consumers: Organisms that eat plants and other animals to live.
-Genes: The units of inheritance that transmit information from parents to children.
-Prokaryotes: Archaea. Most live in Earth's extreme environments, such as salty lakes and hot springs.
-Science: To know. The way of knowing.
-Inductive Reasoning: Discovery science can lead to important conclusion based on a type of logic. For example "All organisms are made of cells."
-Deductive Reasoning: The logic used in hypothesis-based science to come up with ways to test hypotheses.


Explanation of Diagram

This is a diagram of eukaryotic cell.
It is subdivided by internal membranes into many different functional compartments or organelles, including the nucleus that houses the cell's DNA. It is bigger and more complicated than prokaryotic cell. Animals, plants, and fungi are composed of eukaryotic cells.








Summary of Chapter 1
All the living things are composed of at least one cell or more. There are two types of cells, one is a prokaryotic cell which compose only bacteria, and the other one is called eukaryotic cell which compose animals, plants, and fungi. All cells have DNA, and the continuity of life is based on this. DNA is a genetic material that has information from parents to offspring. They are similar to the way we arrange letter of the alphabet into precise sequences with specific meanings. Since there are tons of species, we decided to separate them into couple groups, such as three domains which are bacteria, eukarya, and archaea. In the domain, there are kingdoms. This is how we put all the organisms in several groups. In 1859, Charles Darwin published books about evolution. He talked about the idea of evolution. Also he pointed out that to propose a mechanism for evolution is called natural selection. Those books were immediate bestseller.
Scientists use two main approaches to learn about nature. One is called discovery science, and the other is called hypothesis-based science. Discovery science leads to important conclusions based on a type of logic called inductive reasoning. On hypothesis-based science, you make a hypothesis from your questions, and test it, then see what the result is. Those approaches could develop the technology because biology, technology, and society are connected. New discoveries of science can lead to new technologies. Also new technologies can lead to new scientific discoveries. If the technology improves, society improves as well. Evolution is connected to our everyday lives. Your cells develop depends on your environment. For instance, a giraffe's neck got so much longer than the past because it was easier for them to eat with long neck. They learned so that now their DNA makes their necks long like now.

5 FACTS:
1) All the living things perform seven things. Order, regulation, grow and develop, process energy, responsible for the environment, reproduce, evolutionary adaption.
2) Charles Darwin wrote a book about evolution and natural selection. The books became best seller.
3) Two types of discovery. Using hypothesis and leading to the result from many small facts.
4) Technology and science are related. Science leads to the new high technology things. Also Technology can lead to the new discovery of science.
5) Three types of domains. Bacteria(similar to archaea), Archaea(living in extreme environment), and Eukarya (having the most complex cell).